Politics/Environmental Studies 204 Fall Semester, 1997

Mr. Kahn, Rice 232 MWF: 1:30-2:20

Office Hours: WF: 4:30-6:00 Griswold Lounge-Stevenson

Phone: Office, 8495; Home, 774-1670 Fkahn@alpha.cc.oberlin.edu

Politics/Environmental Studies 204 is a course about the use of federal courts, public laws and regulations, and common law principles such as torts (or the law of damages) to secure environmental protection. No three-credit Environmental Law class can cover all areas of pollution law. Therefore, I have chosen to focus on the law and politics surrounding the National Environmental Protection Act, the Endangered Species Act, Land Takings and Public Trust issues as they inform the enforcement of NEPA and ESA, and the many questions raised by our nation's attack on air pollution. In the final section of the course we shall explore major questions of the role of courts and politics on the successes and failures in pollution control, drawing from materials on hazardous waste disposal and other pollution laws.

Topics include: the public trust doctrine; risk assessment and judicial review; court use of scientific data; citizen, group, and institutional access to federal courts to influence government and private citizen (institutional) actions that affect the environment; economic approaches to administrative law and environmental protection; policy-making practices in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Presidency, and Congress; environmental racism and NIMBY (Not In My Backyard); integrative versus regulation specific approaches to defining environmental issues and regulation; state versus federal government regulation of the environment; and the effectiveness of environmental protection and new strategies for the future.

Our objectives are many: to see the role of courts compared to politics in the definition of pollution issues and the enforcement of pollution laws; to compare law making and enforcement through regulation and courts, to market and private law efforts at pollution control; to evaluate how issues of public takings of private land inform the protection of land for environmental purposes and whether the public trust doctrine is a likely means to protect land for future generations; and to evaluate how reforms in administrative processes through Court action have substantive effects on protecting the environment; to evaluate the implications for pollution control of centering regulation in the nation government compared to the states; to compare successes and failures in different parts of air pollution control legislation; and to see whether market and private law alternatives hold much hope of success. If time permits, we will explore the question of the limits of nations a forums for pollution control.

Course requirements include two essays of 8-12 double-spaced type-written pages, plus an in class final examination during the examination period. The first essay will be on Sections I-IV of the syllabus: NEPA, ESA, takings. The first essay will be due the last Friday before Fall Break, October 17. The second essay will be on Sections V, air pollution control, and VI, economic approaches to pollution control, including market, risk, and benefit cost approaches pollution control. The final examination will center on Section VII, viewing environmental protection in terms of private law, that is as citizen lawsuits, rather than as government enforcement of regulations, and, most important, Section VIII, evaluating the regulation and law of environmental pollution. For each of these essays you will be able to choose a question to write upon from a list that I will hand out at least two weeks before the essay is due. For the final, you will have review questions.

In writing each of these essays you are required to draw on the reading materials that are listed in the syllabus plus at least three articles that you are to select from over 150 articles that have been placed in the Reserve Room at the library, or which you collect on your own. Each of you is permitted to photo duplicate one copy of any article. These articles are listed in the Bibliography for Politics/Environmental Studies 204: Environmental Law, which you will receive from me on Friday. Your selection of these articles and your inclusion of them in your first two essays constitute an important (research) component in the course. Students may choose to use the Lexis/Nexis on-line computer data base as a reference source as well. The first essay is 25% of your grade. The second essay is 30% of your grade. The Final examination will be 25% of your grade. Class participation will constitute 20% of your grade.

The final essay will focus on materials in Sections VII, viewing environmental protection as matters of private law suits, and VIII, evaluating success and failure of pollution control in the United States, with particular concern for evaluating the role of the EPA, courts, Congress and interest groups, the states compared to the national government, and command and control versus alternative means of pollution control. You will write on two one-hour questions on the final, drawn from review questions handed out two weeks prior to the final. Your final examination for 204 will be on Tuesday, December 16, 2:00-4:00 PM.

The following books of required readings should be purchased at the COOP Bookstore:

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Nark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1996)

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of

Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Mark Squillace, Air Pollution, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1992)

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I. Introduction: Obligation To Whom?

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1996)

Chapter 1, Ethical Dimensions, 2-46.

White, The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis (1967)

Leopold, The Land Ethic (1966)

Stone, Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects (1972)

D'Amato, Do We Owe A Duty to Future Generations to Preserve the Global Environment? (1990)

Weiss, Our Rights and Obligations to Future Generations for the Environment: 40-46.

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of

Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 2, Noneconomic Perspectives on Environmental Degradation, 18-44.

Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (1988)

Paul W. Taylor, Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics (1986)

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

Chapter 1, Perspectives, 36-45.

Joseph L. Sax, The Search for Environmental Rights (1990)

II. When Does/ Should the Supreme Court and Lesser Federal Courts Intervene?

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental

Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition

(Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

A. Getting Into Federal Court: Standing and Ripeness

Chapter 3, The Administrative Process, 83-120.

Sierra Club v. Morton (1972)

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife (1992)

Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation (1990)

Problem #1: Standing and Ripeness

B. Judicial Review of Agency Action

Chapter 3, The Administrative Process, 121-146.

Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe (1971)

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources

Defense Council, Inc. (1978)

Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. (1984)

III. The Federal Courts and Environmental Law: NEPA (National Environmental Protection Act) and ESA (Endangered Species Act)

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental

Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition

(Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

A. The National Environmental Policy Act

Chapter 4, Introduction to NEPA and ESA, 147-160.

Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc. v. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (1971)

B. The Endangered Species Act

Chapter 4, Introduction to NEPA and ESA, 161-179.

Daniel J. Rohlf, The Endangered Species Act: A Guide to its Protections and Implementation (1989)

Introduction to the Endangered Species Act

Northern Spotted Owl v. Hodel (1988)

Defenders of Wildlife v. Andrus (1977)

C. What Were the Substantive Effects on Agency Decision making To Be Under NEPA and ESA?

Chapter 5, Substantive Effects on Decision making, 181-208, 217.

Strycker's Bay Neighborhood Council, Inc. v. Karlen (1980) (NEPA)

Baltimore Gas & Electric Co. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. (1983) (NEPA)

Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill (1978) (ESA)

Problem # 2: Substantive Effects on Agency Decision making

D. The Decision To Prepare Environmental Documents

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1994)

Chapter 6, The Decision to Prepare Environmental Documents, 219-302.

1. The Significance of Environmental Documents: 219-248.

Hanly v. Mitchell [Hanly I] (1972)

Hanly v. Kleindienst [Hanly II] (1973)

Conner v. Burford (1989)

Marsh v. Oregon Natural Resources Council (1989)

Problem #3: The Supplemental EIS

2. Federal Action: 249-261.

Scottsdale Mall v. Indiana (1977)

Defenders of Wildlife v. Andrus (1980)

3. The Human Environment: 262-267.

Metropolitan Edison Co. v. People Against Nuclear Energy (1983)

4. Programmatic Proposals and Legislation: 268-302.

Scientists' Institute for Public Information, Inc. v. Atomic Energy Commission [SIPI] (1973)

Kleppe v. Sierra Club (1976)

Lane County Audubon Society v. Jamison (1992)

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. Callaway (1977)

Joseph Mendelson & Andrew Kimbrell, The Legislative Environmental Impact Statement: An Analysis of Public Citizen v. Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (Environmental Law Report, 1993)

5. Extraterritorial Activities: Environmental Impact Beyond Our

Borders: 303-317.

Executive Order 12114 (1979)

Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. V. Massey (1993)

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife (1992)

E. To What Degree Must Environmental Impact Statements Contain Alternatives?

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition ( Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

Chapter 7, The Scope of NEPA and ESA Documents, 319-390.

1. Alternatives: 319-340.

Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Morton (1972)

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. (1978)

Forty Most Asked Questions Concerning CEQ's National Environmental Policy Act Regulation (1981)

Citizens Against Burlington, Inc. v. Busey (1991)Problem #4: Alternatives and Other EIS Issues

2. Scope of Analysis and Cumulative Impacts: 341-373.

Cumulative Effects Under the Endangered Species Act,

U.S. Department of the Interior (1981)

Conner v. Burford (1988)

Thomas v. Peterson (1985)

Taxpayers Watchdog, Inc. v. Stanley (1987)

Problem #5: Scope of Environmental Documents

Sylvester v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1989)

3. The Duty to Mitigate Environmental Harm Under Conditions of Uncertainty: 374-390.

Robertson v. Methow Valley Citizens Council (1989)

Roosevelt Campobello International Park Comm'n v. United States Environmental Protection Agency (1982)

Problem #6: Uncertainty

IV. The Federal Courts and Environmental Law: Takings--The Environment as Property

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company 1996).

Chapter 4, The Environment as Property, 279-387.

A. The Commons: 279; 281-305.

Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons (1968)

Ostrom, Governing the Commons (1990)

Rose, Given-ness and Gift: Property and the Quest for Environmental Ethics (1994)

B. Privatization: 307-337

Anderson & Leal, Free Market Environmentalism (1991)

Blumm, The Fallacies of Free Market Environmentalism

(1992)

Menell, Institutional Fantasylands: From Scientific Management to Free Market Environmentalism (1992)

Sax, The Claim for Retention of the Public Lands (1984)

C. The Public Trust Doctrine: 339-372.

Sax, The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law:

Effective Judicial Intervention (1970)

Sax, Liberating the Public Trust Doctrine from its Historical Shackles (1980)

Lazarus, Changing Conceptions of Property and Sovereignty in Natural Resources: Questioning the Public Trust Doctrine (1986).

Huffman, A Fish Out of Water: The Public Trust Doctrine in a Constitutional Democracy (1989)

D. Takings, Local Zoning, &Environmental Protection: The Lucas Case

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition ( Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

Chapter 2, Constitutional Issues, 68-81.

Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council (1992).

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company , 1996)

Chapter 4, The Environment as Property, 374-387.

Sax, Property Rights and the Economy of Nature: Understanding Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council (1993).

E. Takings Under ESA (The Endangered Species Act

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, 1994)

Chapter 10, Takings under the Endangered Species Act, 431-455.

Palila Hawaii Dep't of Land & Natural Resources (1988)

Sierra Club v. Lyng (1991) Problem #7: Takings and Jeopardy Christy v. Hodel (1989)

Problem #8: Habitat Conservation Planning

First Paper Due: October 17, Friday Before Fall Break

Mark Squillace, Air Pollution, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1992)

A. The Case for Controlling Air Pollution

Chapter 1, Air Pollution: The Case for Its Control, 1-13.

Wark & Warner, Air Pollution: Its Origins and Control (1981)

B. The Law

Chapter 4, The Big Picture: A Summary of the Clean Air Act, 47-62.

C. National Ambient Air Standards

Chapter 5, National Ambient Air Quality Standards, 63-82.

Natural Resources Defense Council v. Train (1976)

Lead Industries Association v. EPA (1980).

D. State Implementation Plans

Chapter 6, State Implementation Plans, 83-172.

1. Approval and Disapproval: 83-96.

State of Texas v. EPA (1974)

Kennecott Copper Corporation v. Train (1976)

2. Economic and Technological Feasibility: 96-105.

Union Electric Company v. EPA (1976)

3. Nonattainment Areas: 105-115.

1990 Amendments: Ozone Nonattainment Areas

Citizens Against Refinery's Effects v. EPA (1981)

4. Nonattainment Area Plans: 115-127.

National Steel Corporation v. Gorsuch (1983)

State of Ohio v. Ruckelshaus (1985)

Problem #1: State Implementation Plans and Nonattainment Areas

5. Transboundary Disputes: 128-157.

State of Connecticut v. EPA (1982)

Air Pollution Control District of Jefferson County v. EPA (1984)

Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Ontario v. EPA (1990)

6. Enforcement of State Implementation Plans: 157-163.

General Motors Corporation v. United States (1990)

Problem #2: The Scope of Federal Authority Under State Implementation Plans

7. Judicial Review of State Implementation Plans: 163-169.

Kennecott Copper Corporation v. Costle (1978)

8. The Right to Be Heard: 169-172.

Anaconda Company v. Ruckelshaus (1973)

E. The Duty to Prevent Significant Deterioration

Chapter 7, Prevention of Significant Deterioration, 173-215.

1. Stationary Sources: 173-201

Alabama Power Company v. Costle (1979)

Kerr-McGee Chemical Corporation v. U.S. Department of the Interior (1983)

Problem #3: Air Quality Related Values

Natural Resources Defense Council v. EPA (1991)

2. Visibility Protection: 201-215.

State of Vermont v. Thomas (1988)

Grand Canyon National Park Visibility Impairment (1991)

Problem #4: Visibility

F. Monitoring and Modeling: Predicting the Impact From a New Source

Chapter 8, Monitoring and Modeling, 217-232.

PPG Industries v. Costle (1981)

Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company v. EPA(1978)

State of Ohio v. EPA (1986)

G. Permits and Performance Standards for Stationary Sources

Chapter 9, Permits and Performance Standards for Stationary Sources, 233-326.

1. New Source Performance Standards: 233-241.

National Asphalt Pavement Association v. Train (1976)

2. New Source Review: 241-249.

Wisconsin Electric Power Company V. Reilly (1990)

3. The Permit Program for Stationary Sources: 250-260.

Roady, Permitting and Enforcement Under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (1991)

Hawaiian Electric Company v. EPA (1984)

Problem #5: Permits for Stationary Sources

4. Hazardous Air Pollutants: 260-280.

Natural Resources Defense Council v. EPA (1987)

The 1990 Amendments to Section 112 (1990)

Cross, Byrd, & Lave, Discernible Risk - A Proposed Standard

for Significant Risk in Carcinogen Regulation (1991)

Problem #6: Technology-Based Standards

5. The Emissions Trading Program: 280-300.

Chevron USA, Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council (1984)

EPA Emissions Trading Policy Statement; General Principles For Creation, Banking, and Use of Emission Reduction Credits (1986)

Problem #7: Permits, Bubbles & Visibility

6. The Acid Precipitation Program: 301-326.

Acid Rain Program: Permits, Allowance System, Continuous Emissions Monitoring, and Excess Emissions (1991)

H. Inspecting and Enforcing Air Pollution Laws at Stationary Sources

Chapter 10, Inspections and Enforcement of Stationary Sources, 327-364.

1. Inspections and Recordkeeping: 327-337.

Stauffer Chemical Company v. EPA (1981)

Dow Chemical Company v. United States (1986)

2. Enforcement: 337-364.

City of Seabrook v. Costle (1981)

Union Electric Company v. EPA (1971)

Adamo Wrecking Company v. United States (1978)

Duquesne Light Company v. EPA (1983)

Problem #8: Inspection and Enforcement of Stationary Sources

I. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Chapter 11, Stratospheric Ozone Depletion, 365-385.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1990)

EPA Notice of Proposed Rule making-- Ozone Depletion (1991)

Senate Debate: London Amendments to the Montreal Protocol

(1991)

J.. Mobile Sources of Air Pollution

Chapter 12, Mobile Sources, 387-425

1. Emission Standards for New Motor Vehicles

Natural Resources Defense Council v. Ruckelshaus (1984)

Natural Resources Defense Council v. EPA (1981)

Center for Auto Safety v. Ruckeishaus (1984)

2. Regulation of Fuels and Fuel Additives: 409-425.

Ethyl Corporation v. EPA (1976)

K. Citizens Seeking Judicial Review of Agency Actions: Possibilities and Problems

Chapter 13, Judicial Review, 427-448.

1. Petitions for Review and Rulemaking Proceedings: 427-435.

Harrison v. PPG Industries (1980)

2. Citizen Suits: 435-448.

Environmental Defense Fund v. Thomas (1989)

Natural Resources Defense Council v. EPA (1975)

L. Should We Trust the National Government or the States With Pollution Control

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 7, Federalism and Environmental Regulation, 161-182

Stewart, Pyramids of Sacrifice? Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy (1977)

Revesz, Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the "Race-to-the-Bottom" Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation (1992)

Notes and Questions

VI. Alternative Perspectives I: Viewing Environmental Pollution in Economic Terms

A. Introduction

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of

Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 1, The Economic Perspective on Environmental Degradation, 3-17.

Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons (1968) (reread)

Coase, The Problem of Social Cost (1960)

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co., 1996)

Chapter 3, Economics, 197-211, 214-278.

Boulding, The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth (1966)

Repetto, Wasting Assets: The Need for National Resource Accounting (1990)

Hurter et al.., Benefit-Cost Analysis and the Common Sense of Environmental Policy (1982)

Sagoff, Economic Theory and Environmental Law (1981)

Kelman, Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Ethical Critique (1981)

Stavins & Whitehead, Dealing with Pollution: Market-Based Incentives for Environmental Protection (1992)

B. Market Approaches

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental

Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1994)

Chapter 1, Perspectives, 30-35.

Terry L. Anderson & Donald R. Leal, Free Market Versus

Political Environmentalism (1992)

Mark Squillace, Air Pollution, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1992)

Chapter 2, Market Approaches to the Air Pollution Problem, 15-27

Schelling, Prices as Regulatory Instruments (1983)

Ackerman & Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law: The Democratic Case for Market Incentives (1988)

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 6, The Choice of Regulatory Tools, 130-144

Ackerman and Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law (1985)

Baumol and Oates, The Theory of Environmental Policy (1988)

Bohm, Deposit-Refund Systems: Theory and Applications to Environmental, Conservation, and Consumer Policy (1981)

C. The Determination of Risk and Benefit-Cost Analysis

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 3, The Scientific Predicate for Environmental Regulation: Risk Assessment, 45-75.

Ruckelshaus, Risk, Science, and Democracy (1985)

Rosenthal, Gray, and Graham, Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals (1992)

Graham, Green, and Roberts, In Search of Safety: Chemicals and Cancer Risk (1988)

Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk

Regulation (1993)

Notes and Questions

Chapter 4, The Objectives of Environmental Regulation: Risk Management, 76-101

Fischhoff, Uchtenstein, Paul, Derby, and Keeney, Acceptable Risk (1981)

Lave, The Strategy of Social Regulation: Decision Frameworks for Policy (1981)

Kelman, Cost-Benefit Analysis: An Ethical Critique (1981)

Notes and Questions

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co., 1996)

Chapter 5, Risk, 389-466.

Rosenthal, Gray, and Graham, Legislating Acceptable Cancer Risk from Exposure to Toxic Chemicals (1992) (reread)

Ruckelshaus, Risk in a Free Society (1984)

Atcheson, The Department of Risk Reduction or Risky Business (1991)

Huber, Safety and the Second Best: The Hazards of Public Risk Management in the Courts 91985)

Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle: Towards Effective Risk

Regulation 440 (reread)

Gillette and Krier, Risk, Courts, and Agencies (1990)

VII. Alternative Perspectives II: Viewing Environmental Pollution In Private Law-Citizen Suits Terms

Mark Squillace, Air Pollution, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1992)

Chapter 3, Air Pollution and the Common Law, 29-45.

Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Company (1970)

International Paper Company V. Ouellette (1987)

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co., 1996)

Chapter 2, Legal Institutions, 164-196.

Greve, The Private Enforcement of Environmental Law (1990)

Farber, Toxic Causation (1987)

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of

Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 6, The Choice of Regulatory Tools, 144-149.

Shavell, Liability For Harm Versus Regulation of Safety (1984)

VIII. Evaluating the Success (and Failure) of Pollution Control in the United States

A. Environmental Justice

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 5, Distributional Consequences of Environmental Policy, 102-129.

Bullard, Anatomy of Environmental Racism and the Environmental Justice Movement (1993)

Been, Locally Undesirable Land Uses in Minority Neighborhoods:

Disproportionate Siting or Market Dynamics? (1994)

Been, What's Fairness Got to Do With It? Environmental Justice and the Siting of Locally Undesirable Land Uses (1993)

Peskin, Environmental Policy and the Distribution of Benefits and Costs (1978)

Notes and Questions

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1996)

Chapter 1, Ethical Dimensions, 46-64

Lazarus, Pursuing 'Environmental Justice:' The Distributional Effects of Environmental Protection (1993)

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company 1996).

B. The Environmental Protection Agency

Chapter 2, Legal Institutions, 117-151

Latin, Regulatory Failure, Administrative Incentives, and the New Clean Air Act (1991)

Lazarus, The Tragedy of Distrust in the Implementation of Federal

Environmental Law (1991)

C. The Courts

Chapter 2, Legal Institutions, 153-164.

O'Leary, The Impact of Federal Court Decisions on the Policies and Administration of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

D. Congress and Interest Groups

Chapter 2, Legal Institutions, 67-90.

Elliott, Ackerman, and Millian, Toward a Theory of Statutory Evolution: The Federalization of Environmental Law (1985)

Rogers, The Seven Statutory Wonders of U.S. Environmental Law: Origins and Morphology (1994)

E. A Public Choice Approach to Balancing Private Interest Group Power and Collective Societal Needs:

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 8, Environmental Law and Public Choice, 183-220.

Elliot, Ackerman, and Millian, Towards a Theory of Statutory Evolution: The Federalization of Environmental Law (1985)

Ackerman and Hassler, Clean Coal/Dirty Air (1981)

Pashigian, Environmental Regulation: Whose Self-Interests Are Being Protected? (1985)

Maloney and McCormick, A Positive Theory of Environmental Quality Regulation (1982)

Farber, Politics and Procedure in Environmental Law (1982)

Notes and Questions

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Anderson Publishing Company: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1996)

F. The Integration of Pollution Policy

Chapter 2, Legal Institutions, 90-116.

Babich, Our Federalism, Our Hazardous Waste, and Our Good Fortune (1995)

Guruswamy, Integrating Thoughtways: Re-Opening of the Environmental Mind (1995)

Chapter 3, Economics, 249-278.

Latin, Ideal Versus Real Regulatory Efficiency: Implementation of Uniform Standards and "Fine-Tuning" Regulatory Reforms (1985)

Ackerman & Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law (1985) (review)

G. An Overview of the Environmental Decades: What Do You Think Given What We Have Studied?

Jackson B. Battle, Robert Fischman, and Mark Squillace, Environmental

Decision making: NEPA and the Endangered Species Act, Second Edition (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Company, 1994)

Chapter 1, Perspectives, 12-30

Council on Environmental Quality, An Environmental Decade (1979)

Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Perspectives (1984)

Barry Commoner, Failure of the Environmental Effort (1988)

H. The Limits of the Nation as the Primary Forum for Pollution Control

Robert L. Fischman, Maxine I. Lipeles, and Mark S. Squillace, An Environmental Law Anthology (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co., 1996)

Chapter 6, International Issues, 467-515

Weiss, International Environmental Law: Contemporary Issues and the Emergence of a New World Order (1993)

Schoenbaum, Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict? (1992)

Wirth, A Matchmaker's Challenge: Marrying International Law and American Environmental Law (1992)

Richard L. Revesz, Interdisciplinary Readers in Law: Foundations of Environmental Law and Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Chapter 11, Environmental Regulation and International Trade: 279-306

Stewart, International Trade and Environment: lessons From the Federal Experience (1992)

Chang, An Economic Analysis of Trade measures To Protect the Global Environment (1995)

Bhagwati and Srinivasan, Trade and the Environment: Does Environmental Diversity Detract From a Case For Free Trade (1996)

Chapter 12, International Environmental Law, 307-334

Weiss, Intergenerational Equity: A legal Framework for Global Environmental Change (1991)

Solow, An Almost Practical Step Towards Sustainability (1993)

Young, The Politics of International Regime Formation: Managing Natural Resources and the Environment (1989)

Shue, Subsistence Emissions and Luxury Emissions (1993)